ianfraserconsulting - Learning and Development Consultants

Cultural Diversity in Training

Written by Ian Fraser

In this article:
Do women prefer different learning styles to men?  Learn how different cultures affect learning styles and how as a facilitator you can adapt your teaching style to accommodate the many varied learning styles.

Within any society there exists a variety of cultures, therefore, within any group training environment there also exists a variety of cultures.  How do these cultures affect the way learners learn?  If different cultures lead to different learning styles and therefore different learning outcomes amongst individuals within a group training environment, should a facilitator adapt their own teaching style to incorporate the cultural differences of the learners or should the learners be expected to adapt to the learning style of the dominant culture/s or that of the facilitator and what are the consequences of either path?  There may not be a clear cut answer to this question as a combination of both points of view may be the most effective approach.  Is adapting to the new cultural surrounds and predominant learning styles of that culture vital or do individual learning styles need to play a more important role?  How can a facilitator adapt to various cultural training environments so that students learning styles can be incorporated into the training plan.  These are all of the questions that a facilitator must tackle when conducting any form of teaching or training.  As every group will consist of various cultures, a facilitator will need to be aware of cultural differences between various cultures even when conducting teaching or training in familiar surroundings.

Nieto1 defines culture as: “the values, traditions, social and political relationships, and world view created, shared and transformed by a group of people bound together by a common history, geographical location, language, social class, religion or other shared identity.  Culture includes not only tangibles such as foods, holidays, dress and artistic impression but also less tangible manifestations such as communication style, attitudes, values and family relationships.“

Any single person may belong to several cultural groups which may be many millions in number such as a religion or as small as an individual family.

People can belong to a specific cultural group based on their birthplace, nationality, ethnicity background, family social and economic status, gender, age, language, education, physical condition, sexual orientation, religion, profession, place of work and its corporate culture.  There are so many cultural groups within any society that it would be neglectful to interpret cultural diversity as simply racial or ethnic based.

Within Australia there are over 200 languages spoken which includes 45 indigenous languages.  Seventeen percent of the population comes from a non English speaking background.  Twenty three percent of the population were born overseas and this figure is expected to grow dramatically as Australia’s birth rate drops over the coming decades.  Males and females are split relatively evenly.  Sixty eight percent of people acknowledge believing in the Christian religion.2   Add to these statistics, various income groups, family living arrangements, age variations, sexual orientations, physical abilities and professions and Australia is truly a very culturally diverse nation.

The Australian Government3 accepted the recommended definition of Australian multiculturalism put forward by the National Multi Cultural Advisory Council in 1999 which stated that multiculturalism is:

“A term which recognises and celebrates Australia’s cultural diversity.  It accepts and respects the right of all Australians to express and share their individual cultural heritage within an overriding commitment to Australia and the basic structures and values of Australian democracy.”

The definition then goes on to explain how Australian multiculturalism also refers to the strategies, policies and programs that are designed to make infrastructure responsive to Australia’s culturally diverse population, promote social harmony among those various cultures and maximise the benefits of that diversity for Australia.

This definition also states that the Australian culture is “dynamic” and constantly changing and evolving.4   As the world and the culture continue to change over time it is necessary for all facilitators to continue to be learners themselves.  If a facilitator can not grow, learn, and adapt as the world around them is changing, then they will lose touch with the lives and experiences of their learners and their teaching will suffer as a result.

This definition and the diversity shown in Government policies clearly outlines the continuing distancing of Australian society in general from the principles and practices of assimilation which has been practiced previously in Australia with policies related to the indigenous Aboriginal population and non English speaking people.  Cultural diversity is now far more accepted and sought after with new Government initiatives promoting the virtues of a harmonious and culturally diverse society.

Anthropologist Margaret Mead said: “If we are to achieve a richer culture, rich in contrasting values, we must recognise the whole gamut of human potentialities, and so weave a less arbitrary social fabric, one in which each diverse human gift will find a fitting place.” This statement can also be attributed to the goals of a culturally diverse training or educational framework as well as society in general.

When training or teaching as a profession it is vital to acknowledge that Australia’s multiculturalism plays an ever increasing role in the place of education as it does in all areas of Australian society and Government policy. The role of a facilitator includes being able to challenge and encourage learners thoughts, actions and behaviours in a comfortable learning environment.  Being able to impart knowledge through the facilitation of discussions, demonstrations, exercises and various other teaching methods whereby learners are encouraged to share experiences and opinions enabling them to learn both the topic at hand and the relevance of the topic in a broader context.  An effective facilitator is someone who can harness a multitude of techniques and skills into an informative educational session that benefits both the student and in many cases their employer or profession, future or current.  Facilitators who can do this can achieve a culture of learning and therefore bring out the best in the learners themselves.

It is widely agreed that there are many learning styles that individual learners adapt to their own benefit.  Learners tend to adopt learning styles that have proven to be successful in the past and discard others that have not proven useful.  Learners can be influenced in their preference for a certain learning style by cultural factors such as nationality and religion.

According to Compeau,5 there are six primary categories of behaviour that effective facilitators share: knowledge, communication, course design, sympathy, training techniques, and class management.  The effectiveness of any training session will largely depend on the skills of the facilitator.  Being aware of and adaptable to different learning styles of individuals is central to developing an effective training session.  Apart from subject knowledge, all of the categories of an effective facilitator commented on by Compeau rely on the facilitator being aware of and able to adapt to various cultural differences within a group of learners.

One of the most important aspects of being an effective facilitator is the ability to successfully communicate a message to the learner.  If the learners cannot understand the facilitator’s message then their capacity to learn is severely compromised.  If a facilitator is unaware of cultural differences then there can be misunderstandings between the facilitator and the learner and between learners themselves. 

Stella Ting-Toomey6 has written extensively on intercultural communications.  She has laid out three distinct ways in which culture can impede on effective cross cultural communication and understanding.  First is what she calls cognitive constraints.  These are the frames of reference or world views that provide a backdrop that all new information is compared to or inserted into.  People often interpret things in the way they see them based on their learned cultural beliefs rather than the way they really are.

Behaviour constraints are her second point.  She states that each culture has specific behavioural patterns that are acceptable to that culture but may not be to other cultures.  The example of different cultures reactions to varying degrees of eye contact is an example of this.  Behaviour constraints can be used to show politeness to another culture.  However different cultures can have different meanings for common gestures and therefore misunderstandings between cultures is common.

Stella Ting-Toomey cited emotional constraints as the third obstruction to cultural understanding.  She believed some cultures regulate the display of emotions in different ways.  People from some cultures may get very emotional over a particular issue of importance to them, whether it is backed by facts or not, other people from dissimilar cultures may choose to hide their emotions, displaying or sharing only the logical or rational aspect of the situation.

According to Toomey, these three different factors can contribute to serious miss-communication problems.  If the people concerned are not conscious of the potential for such problems, they are even more likely to cause them.  However it takes more knowledge and awareness to avoid these problems and communicate effectively across cultures.

Gudykunst and Kim7 point out that "we communicate the way we do because we are raised in a particular culture and learn its language, rules and norms."  While different cultures may have different rules, gestures, language and patterns, which make it harder for people outside that culture to understand, Gudykunst and Kim also argue that understanding the other culture facilitates greater cross cultural communication.

Raymond Cohen8 has written on cross cultural communication in the area of international diplomacy.  He identified that communication can be strongly affected by differing cultural perceptions, conventions, ideas, assumptions, meanings, and norms.  In finalising his studies he suggested some general solutions to the barriers faced by intercultural communications.  As part of his summary he recommended studying the history and language of other cultures and creating a warm and personal relationship with others involved in the communication before the beginning of negotiations with the other culture.  He also warned on the danger of assuming that the others see things the way you do, as this could produce a disaster in the communication process.  The old adage; “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you” should be avoided in cross-cultural communications.  In discussing communication he also talks of non-verbal communication and how important it is to be aware and sensitive to non-verbal or indirect communications, and be aware of our own non-verbal signals.

As a facilitator of cross cultural groups of learners it is important to give clear and concise instructions, reasons and purposes for all activities. Write these down on flip charts or whiteboards as well as stating them verbally.  Have a learner or two summarise the instructions for others as long as this does not intimidate the learner at all.  Using various methods of communication lessens the risk of misunderstandings.  Even learning to pronounce every learner’s full given name correctly is a great starting place to becoming an inclusive and culturally aware facilitator.

I remember clearly an example which illustrates this point.  George Bush Senior on a visit to Australia in the early 1990’s stood on the steps of his departing plane and gave the Australian public what can only be summed up as an “up yours” hand signal.  He was blissfully unaware that the hand gesture was considered extremely rude in Australia, whilst in America the very same gesture is one of peace.  He had been brought up in a different culture.  Although Australia has some rather unique cultural differences from the United States of America which make it hard for an outsider to fit in, an understanding of Australian culture in this case would have saved a great deal of embarrassment.

Another example, stated earlier, is that of eye contact.  In some cultures, looking people in the eye is assumed to indicate honesty and frankness; in others it is seen as challenging and rude. In many western countries looking people directly in the eyes is the most effective way to connect with them but too much eye contact makes many people uncomfortable.  Most people in Arab cultures share a great deal of eye contact and may regard too little as disrespectful.  In South East Asian as well as many other cultures direct eye contact is generally regarded as aggressive and rude.9   With variations like these it is little wonder that cross cultural communications is fraught with danger for the uninformed.

Obviously, communication plays a large role in training and teaching others.  For this reason it is vital that facilitators avail themselves in understanding the communication issues relating to the possible cultural groups that they will be involved in when training.  In learning different methods and understandings of cross cultural communications facilitators must be aware of the many different cultural groups that have different ways of communicating.  International, ethnic and religious differences are often discussed and sometimes studied by teaching professionals however the more common types of diversity which most facilitators are exposed to every day are less likely to be treated with the same degree of concern and thought.

One of the major cultural differences to be aware of, especially in the realm of computer teachings (an area I have experience in) is that of being able to train to the strengths of both men and women.

Our culture has created a very real difference in computer expertise and interest in this area.  Men are more predominately interested in computers than women.  They are therefore more knowledgeable about computers.  In 2002, 85% of all information technology workers were men, which is a considerably higher proportion than that of all employed persons (56%).  This is a trend which is showing no signs of improvement over the years.  The proportion of information technology workers who were women changed little between 1998 (16%) and 2002 (15%).10

Turkle and Papert11 explain the difficulty experienced by women in computing by pointing to the different learning styles of men and women. Studies suggest that many women prefer to learn through an orderly routine in which they understand the reason for each step, where as many males have been encouraged to learn through experimentation and trial and error.  This form of experimentation lends itself well to the understanding and learning of computers.  Women, Turkle and Papert believe, take fewer risks than men do and men prefer to fiddle around with new technology.  Unsystematic learning practices which many men prefer also put them at an advantage over women when it comes to learning the ins and outs of computers and software applications.

I can give anecdotal evidence of this theory from my own experiences in teaching thousands of people computer education over the past ten years.  It is most often the women learners who ask questions such as: “What happens if I press this button?” and “Do I have to single click or double click?”  Male learners are much more likely to experiment on their own and only ask for instructions or advice if something goes wrong.  Some truth may be gained from the stereotypical comment that men do not read instructions and women do.

Women also prefer to work in co-operative groups, sharing information and ideas as they work towards their objectives.  The computer tends to be a more individualistic tool, which matches more closely a man’s preferred learning style and contrasts with women’s learning styles.

Margolis and Fisher12 believe that boys in general are more encouraged than girls at an early age to explore and experiment with computers.  This may be due to the circumstances described by some of their students, who said that they were encouraged to get into computers by their computer interested fathers, while their mothers were more commonly depicted as computer-impaired.  So it can be seen that the trend being set in society at the moment, that of males being more interested and therefore more dominant in many computer related fields stems from a culturally imposed position which can date back to early childhood.

I took on a training contract teaching computers to nurses several years ago.  Nursing is a heavily female dominated industry.  More than ninety percent of the training participants I trained over a two year period were female.  It was necessary in this training environment to completely change my training style.  Social chatting, group decisions and discussions, less competitive approaches as well as more empathy towards the lack of knowledge was needed to encourage most of the participants.  This all contributed to the creation of a safe learning environment.  The curriculum materials used in the training were also adjusted to incorporate the experiences, work practices and culture of the nursing profession.  By making the content of a training course relevant to the lives, experiences, and perspectives of the participants and through the use of culturally familiar examples learning outcomes can be improved.

Irvine and York13 in a review of research findings on learning styles of culturally diverse learners also found a link between different cultures and different learning styles.  They found that African American, Native American and Hispanic learners often demonstrate a learning style similar to the one described above relating to female learners.  Preference for group work, verbal tasks and learning materials which have humour, social content and imagination form the basis by which they can learn best.
Poor teaching can also be a factor, many female students in large classes feel that the instructor is impersonal and shows little willingness to get to know them.14   As a facilitator, try to initiate and encourage dialogue about how computers, as an example, have impacted on the lives of the learners.  This can also be adopted to encourage computer learning among people from various cultural, ethnic, gender, language, and socioeconomic groups.  In other words, it is a great philosophy in encouraging learning across cultural divides.

All facilitators should give plenty of attention to the pedagogical aspects of facilitating, so that their instructions, exercises and examples used in the classroom are capable of meeting the diverse learning needs of all students, not just those from one particular cultural group.  Ensure that the language and images used in textbooks and other educational materials are inclusive of all of the learners.  Examples given should be realistic and adaptable to real world situations and experiences.  The curriculum used should also be more comparative, with connections drawn between computers and software and other subjects and topics which are more familiar to the learners.

It should always be the case, but in particular when teaching female learners about computers, to start from a position where no knowledge at all is assumed of the learner.  At the beginning of a course, I always state what the prerequisites for the course are and if it is an introductory course where there are no prerequisites then this needs to be clearly outlined and restated many times throughout the course.  I find that this has a calming and reassuring effect on many learners especially those who may be embarrassed by their lack of knowledge and therefore fearful of attending the course in the first place.  Providing a comfortable learning environment is one of the key components to encouraging effective learning.

Introducing more hands on group work where learners are encouraged to work together to produce a document or spreadsheet works well.  Even allowing more time than would otherwise be necessary when training a group of female learners for conversation, related or not to the topic, fosters a more friendly and encouraging learning environment.

Many years ago I was involved in a large training program involving the teaching of computer software to staff from the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC).  Most of the learners were from an indigenous heritage and therefore a culture somewhat foreign to my own.  Prior to the training I was to deliver I attended a cultural awareness workshop.  I remember at the time wondering what the advantage was.  Was it really necessary to know the history and some of the language of these people in order to train effectively?  It was not until I started the training that the importance of the knowledge of the background, culture, language and beliefs of Aboriginal people became clear.

One small example is in the area of time.  Various cultures can have different interpretations of time.  For example, arriving late for a presentation in Germany would not be looked upon favourably at all.15   People in Japan lean towards having two modes of time, a structured mode for outsiders and for technology and a more open and flexible mode for their inner circle of family and friends.16   Australian Aboriginals tend to be more forgiving with time.  Courses start once everyone has arrived, participants may leave at any time for extended periods of time.  It is not possible to start training at scheduled times.  A flexible and relaxed approach has to be adopted to avoid disappointing training outcomes.  Conversely, participants in a course conducted in the business end of the Melbourne CBD generally arrive well ahead of the scheduled time and are usually prompt in returning from breaks etc.

Another obstacle that can present itself when training people from an Aboriginal background can stem from their previous experiences in school.  A dislike of schooling can manifest itself in other areas of learning as well.  As Hampton17 points out, “Western education is hostile in its structure, its curriculum, its context, and its personnel". With only 4% of the working age Aboriginal Australian population having a tertiary education compared to 24% for the overall Australian population18 it is easy to see that there tends to be a disproportionably low uptake of tertiary education by indigenous Australians.  This may be in part due to their experiences in early schooling.

Many researchers in both Australian Aboriginal and Native American education lean towards the opinion that the balance between on the one hand assimilating into the dominant mainstream culture within a school environment or on the other hand rebelling and resisting that assimilation and therefore schooling has proven to be a negative factor in achieving positive learning outcomes amongst indigenous populations.19

It is essential for facilitators to understand the different learning styles of any indigenous population to successfully teach in this area.  Although a little out of date, the National Aboriginal Education Committee20 stated that the various learning styles of Australian Aboriginals were predominantly ignored in current education.  It claimed that “Educational services for Aborigines have been based on the same approaches which underlay education for non-Aborigines. These have proved inappropriate and ineffective”.

Kawagley,21 an indigenous American educator, suggests that indigenous students both children and adults use the same method and thinking process as non- indigenous people to solve questions and problems.  However, different value concepts, perspectives, and philosophies determine how they interpret that data.  He suggests teaching through oral literature focussing on protecting indigenous values and then incorporate this teaching to include western perspectives. This approach requires the facilitator to have a thorough understanding of teaching methods in relation to oral literature and to know and understand indigenous cultures.  As a facilitator you need to make a concerted effort to incorporate local cultural examples into your training or teaching.

Another example of ethnic cultural differences in learning is that of many Asian cultures.  Asian culture is very hierarchical and respectful of authority, position, age and experience.  Equality may exist, but most often occurs in teams as learners approach a project or task together.  Facilitators can generally assume they are respected and that they will be shown that respect in and out of the classroom or training environment.  Learners in their courses will not interrupt to ask questions or clarify certain points.  They will show respect for the facilitator by assuming that the facilitator is presenting information in the best way possible.  It is considered that a good learner will listen and go along with the course structure as outlined by the facilitator, assuming that they will understand by completion of the lecture.  Ballard22 suggests that many Asian students in Australia find the constant questioning probing and challenging of the facilitators point of view embarrassing.  They would never consider joining in such heated debate.

Facilitators need to find various ways to explain more complex concepts.  It is always quicker and easier to explain concepts in the way you understand them yourself.  However when teaching a culturally diverse group of learners a facilitator must learn to explain things in various ways. Difficult concepts can always be explained in a simple down to earth style if some thought is put into it.  As Albert Einstein once said: “It should be possible to explain the laws of physics to a barmaid.”  An understanding of the learners culture is imperative as it is too easy to teach concepts in many different ways while still maintaining the teaching style or method of your own dominant culture.  As a facilitator, be willing to extend beyond your own cultural comfort zone and work towards building a process by which you can understand, assess and challenge your own biases and prejudices.  Be aware of how your own culture may impact on your relationships with learners.

According to research by Irvine,23 no single instructional method may be successful in a multicultural learning environment.  Therefore facilitators interested in improving student learning outcomes should be devoting greater attention to being able to develop a range of instructional methods that promote respect for cultural differences and address variances in learning styles.

While being aware of various different cultural habits and backgrounds, it is important not to be so caught up in a particular culture that you lose sight of the individual learners needs.  It is very easy in any study of culture to fall into the trap of stereotyping certain cultures.  Everyone stereotypes to a certain degree.  This can be due in part to the fact that is difficult to remember information regarding individual characteristics about people and places.  There are many examples of stereotyping of particular ethnic groups, genders, religions or people from different sexual persuasions.  Many of these stereotypical images are portrayed through legitimate sources such as Governments and media outlets.

Nieto24 asserts that it would be a mistake to conclude that all those who share a certain cultural identity also share the same behaviours and beliefs.  She also states that people may have many cultural identities and therefore to identify and teach to the strengths of one identity may be at the expense of another.  The danger of stereotyping certain cultural behaviours and attitudes in the learning environment is that it is at the expense of the individual and their own learning style.  Being educated and aware of certain cultural differences should be encouraged; however, forming uneducated stereotypes is dangerous, largely inaccurate and damaging to any learners ability to learn.

A study of ethnic minorities in the United States by Dunn and Griggs concluded that individual learner differences are more significant than cultural differences in predicting learning styles.25   The basic theory of the Dunn and Griggs model is that individual learner styles must be assessed.  For a learner to have the best prospect to learn, instructional techniques must be used that are harmonious with each learners style.

In teaching people from culturally diverse backgrounds, as well as people from your own, it is imperative not to encourage stereotypes or recreate traditional oppressive cultural practices.  This includes curriculum materials used in conjunction with your teaching style.

Within Australia, or any other region, so many varied and distinct cultures exist that failure to endeavour to understand those cultures as a facilitator would be neglectful. Definitions of culture include many aspects of our society and penetrates all people within it.  People may and usually belong to many different cultural groups.  Government, employee and employment groups, social organisations as well as the community as a whole is beginning to recognise the benefits of a culturally diverse society and as such are starting to put polices and procedures into practice to encourage that diversity.

It is argued that these cultural groups within our society have varied learning styles in a training environment and that a teaching style that may be successful for one group may be counter-productive to learning for another.  To be a successful facilitator, in terms of your own ability to be understood and able to impart knowledge in an enjoyable and comfortable manner, it is absolutely essential that you are aware of the various different cultural groups you may be engaged to train.  Although there are cultures which dominate mainstream media outlets it is useful to remember that there are many varied cultures such as gender and employment sector group cultures which also deserve our understanding when conducting any form of training.  An understanding of that culture and the way in which that culture may influence the learning styles of the learner are also essential.  It is not good enough to simply train or teach using your own preferred method of training or learning regardless of the surroundings and prevailing culture.  All learners preferred learning styles need to be incorporated into an effective training style.  Individual learning styles should never be forgotten at the expense of perceived singular cultural learning styles.  This would be neglecting the importance of the individual learner.

A culturally aware trainer will endeavour to use a broad range of training methods, will develop inclusive curriculum and reference material.  They will be able to communicate a message to learners from diverse cultures by being aware of messages that may be unintentionally delivered both verbally and non-verbally.  They will be clear and concise and make all topics relevant to the individual learner.  Be aware of culture and the role it may play in teaching but never forget the individual learner is paramount.

Bibliography

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